REVIEW ON ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE AND ITS MECHANISM OF DEVELOPMENT
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Keywords:
Antibiotics, Mechanisms, ResistanceAbstract
Purpose: Antibiotics are chemical agents that prevent bacterial growth by stopping the bacterial cell from dividing (bacteriostatic) or by killing them (bactericidal). So antibiotics are the integral part of medicines used to insure human and animal health. However, the wide spread use, misuse and overuse of antibiotics in human and animal has raised the concern about the development of resistant bacteria that possess a potential danger to animals and humans. Antibiotic resistant microorganisms have been described as “nightmare bacteria” that “pose a catastrophic threat” to people in every country in the world. So, the aim of this seminar paper is to review on antibiotics resistance and further to recommend on its control measures.
Methods: The use of antibiotics in sub therapeutic doses, non-laboratory oriented therapy and poor storage are some of the factors that engender antibiotic resistance. As there are many different mechanisms in which antibiotics can kill or inhibit the growth and multiplication of bacteria, there are also different mechanisms of resistance in which bacteria developed against antibiotics. The use of antibiotics as growth promoters in food animal producers is significant cause for antibiotic resistance in animals. Even today zoonosis of the resistant strains is able to occur and become a risk to human health. There are guidelines in both human and Veterinary Medicine for rational use of antibiotics. Several new initiatives such as vaccines, bacteriocins, competitive exclusions, bacteriophages and others are being put in place to halt and control the alarming trend of resistance to antibiotics. But, there are still some indications on the misuse of antibiotics by health care providers, unskilled practitioners and drug consumers. Thus, awareness creation should be conducted on rational use of antibiotics in veterinary and medical practice to mitigate the occurrence of antibiotic resistance.
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References
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4. Butler C, Hillier S, Roberts Z, Dustan F, Howard A, Palmer S. Antibiotic-resistant infections in primary care symptomatic for longer and increased workload: outcomes for patients with E. coli UTls. Br. J. Gen. Pract.,2006; 56: 686-692.
5. Center for Disease Control (CDC). National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS); 2008. Human Isolates of Enteric Bacteria Final Report.
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8.Young K D. Peptidoglycan. In Wiley Online Library. Retrieved from http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000702. html.2011.
9. World Health Organization (WHO). Tackling antibiotic resistance from a food safety perspective in Europe. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. Copenhagen, Denmark. 2011.
10. Denyer SP, Hodges NA, Gorman, SP and Gilmore BF. Hugo and Russell Pharmaceutical Microbiology (8th Edition). WileyBlackwell Publishing House, NewDelhi, India, 2011; 200-229.
11. Smith D, Dushoff J, Morris J. Agricultural antibiotics and human health. PloS Med. 2005; 2(8): 232.
12. Levin BR.The population genetics of antibiotic resistance. Clin. Infect.2007; 24: 9–16.
13. Amenu D. Antimicrobial resistance for enteric pathogens isolated from acute
gastro-enteritis patients, 2014.
14. Courvalin P. Antimicrobial drug resistance: prediction is very difficult, especially about the future. Emerg.Inf. Dis.2005; 11(10).
15. Hegstad K, Mikalsen T, Coque TM, Werner G, Sundsfjord A. Mobile genetic elements and their contribution to the emergence of antimicrobial resistant Enterococcusfaecalisand Enterococcus faecium. Clin.Microbiol.infec. 2010; 16(6): 541-554.
16. Rafaillidis PI, Pitsomunis AI and Falagas ME. Meta analyses on the optimization of the duration of antimicrobial treatment for various infections. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 2009; 23: 269-276.
17. Gordon MA and Banda HT. Non-typhoidalbacteraemia among HIVinfected Malawian adults: High mortality and frequent recrudescence. AIDS.2002; 16: 1633-1641.
18. Iwe P. Textbook of Pharmacology.AfrFirPubLtd, Onitsha, Nig, 2006; 480-49.
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20. Moran GJ, Amii RN, Abrahamian FM and Talan D A. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureusin community acquired skin infection. Emerg.Inf. Dis. 2005; 11: 928-930.
21. KieningerAN andLipsett PA. Hospital acquired pneumonia: pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. Surg. Clin. North. Am.,2009; 89: 439-461.
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24. Fluit AC, Visser MR and Schmitz FJ. Molecular detection of antimicrobial
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25. Sageman A. Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms, Problems, and Solutions" (2015).Honors Projects. Paper 416.http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/honorsprojects/416.
26. Holcomb HG, Durbin, KJ, Choi KJ, Darling ND and Angerio A D. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcusaureus as a threat to public health: A cellular approach.Journal of Health Sciences, GeorgiaUniversity, 2008.
27. Willey J, Sherwood L, Wolver ton C. Prescott Microbiology. 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Yk.,2013; 13: 377-400.
28. Galdiero S, Falanga A, Cantisani M, Tarallo R, Pepa M, D'Oriano V, Galdiero M.
Microbe host interactions: Structure and role of gram negative bacterial poris In US National Library of Medicine,2012. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3706956/.
29. Dessen A, Guilmi AM, Dideberg O. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in gram-positive pathogens. Curr.DrugTargetsInfect. Dis.2001;1: 63–77.
30. Harbottle H, Thakur S, Zhao S, White D. Genetics of antimicrobial resistance.
AnimBiotechnol., 2006; 17: 111-124.
31. Levy S. The Antibiotic Paradox: How Misuse of Antibiotics Destroys their Curative
Powers,2002.
32. Siegel J, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L. Management of multidrug resistant organisms in healthcare settings.Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/MDRO/MDROGuideline2006.pdf.
33. Smith HW. The sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents of a further series of strains of Bacterium coli from cases of white scours: the relationship between sensitivity tests and response to treatment. Vet. Rec.2008;68: 274-276.
34. Sun Y. Issues and challenges in developing long acting veterinary 530 antibiotic formulations. Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev.,200.56: 1481-1496.
35. Kools S, Moltmann J, Knacker T. Estimating the use of 528 veterinary medicines in the European union. Regul.Toxicol.Pharm., 2008; 50: 59-65.
36. Anderson E. Drug resistance in Salmonella typhimurium and its implications. Brit. Med. J.,2000;3: 333-339.
37. Hinton M, Hampson D, Linton A. The effects of oxytetracycline on the intestinal Escherichia coli flora of newly weaned pigs. J. Hygi. (London).2004; 95: 77- 85.
38. Rosen GD. Pro-nutrient antibiotic replacement standards discussed. Feedstuff.2003; 75: 11.
39. AMR-Review. eview on antimicrobial resistance – terms of reference. [Online] Available at: http://amr-review.org/node/5 [Accessed 18 September 2015]
40. Cosgrove SE.“The relationship between antimicrobial resistance and patient outcomes: mortality, length of hospital stay, and health care costs”, Clin. Infect. Dis. 2006; 2: 82-90.
41. McNulty C A. “Does laboratory antibiotic susceptibility reporting influence primary care prescribing in urinary tract infection and other infections?”, J Antimicrob. Chemother.2011;66 (6): 1396-1404.
42. Marshall B M, Levy SB. Food animals and antimicrobials: Impacts on human health.Clin.Microbiol. Rev., 2011; 24 (4): 718–733.
43. Spellbery B. Antibiotic resistance and antibiotic development. L. I. D. 2008; 8(4): 211-212.
44. Phillips I, Casewell M, Cox T, Groot B, Friis C, Jones R et al. Does the ruse of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? A critical review of published data.J.Antimic Chemother.2004; 53: 28-52.
45. World Health Organization (WHO).WHO global principles for the containment of antimicrobial resistance in animals intended for food. Report of a WHO consultation, Geneva, Switzerland,2000.
46. Acar J, Rostel B. Antimicrobial resistance: an overview. Rev. sci. tech. Off. Int. Epiz.2001; 20 (3): 797-810.
47. World Health Organization (WHO). Drug resistant Salmonella. Available from: http://www.who.intmediacentre/factsheets/fs139/en/. Accessed: 24 Jun, 2009.
48. Anonymous. Direct fed microbial, enzyme and forage additive compendium. Miller Publishing Company. Alternatives to antibiotic use: probiotics for the gut. Anim. Biotechnol.2006; 13: 97-112.
49. Klesius P H, Shoemaker CA, Evans J J.Efficacies of single and combined Streptococcus iniae isolate vaccine administered by intraperitoneal and intramuscular routes in tilap.Aquacult. 2000;188: 237-246.
50. Livermore D. Can better prescribing turn the tide of resistance? NatRevMicrobiol.2004; 2: 73-78.
51. Streatfield S J, Howard JA. Plant based vaccines. Intl.J.Parasitol. 2003;33: 479-93.
52. Barrow P. The use of bacteriophages for treatment and prevention of bacterial disease in animals and animal models of human infection.J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2001; 76: 677- 682.
53. Moldave K, Rhodes L. Bacteriophage emerging as tool in animal health and food safety. Richmond, U.K.:Pharmaprojects. Anim.Pharm. 2003; 14-16 Jul 18.
54. Cleveland J, Montville T, Nes IF, Chikindas ML. Bacteriocins: safe, natural antimicrobials for food preservation. Intl.J. Food Microbiol.2001; 71: 1-20.
55. DACAE and MSH. Antimicrobials use, resistance and containment baseline survey syntheses of findings. A report published by Drug Administration and Control Authority of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
56. Addisalem H., Bayleyegn M. Tetracycline Residue Levels in Slaughtered Beef Cattle from Three Slaughterhouses in Central Ethiopia. Glob. Vet. 2012; 8 (6): 546- 554.
57. Addis Z, Kebede N, Worku Z, Gezahegn H, Yirsaw A,Kassa T. Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolated from lactating cows and in contact humans in dairy farms of Addis Ababa: a cross sectional study. BMC. Infect. Dis., 2011,
58. Nelson N, Joshi M, Kirika R. Antimicrobial Resistance: The Need for Action in the East, Central and Southern Africa Region, Arlington, 2009.
59. Morley P S, Apley M D, Besser T E, Burney DP, Fedorka-Cray PJ, Papich MG, Traub-Dargatz, JL, Weese JS. Antimicrobial drug use in veterinary medicine. J.vet. Intern. Med. 2005; 19(2):617-629.
60. Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH)/ Ethiopia and WHO. Assessment of pharmaceutical sectors in Ethiopia, 2003.
2. Davies J. Origin and evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, Microbiology
and Mol. Bio. rev., 2010;417-433.
3. Sarmah AK, Meyer MT, Boxall AB. A global perspective on the use, sales, exposure pathways, occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in the environment. Chemo.,2006; 65: 725-759.
4. Butler C, Hillier S, Roberts Z, Dustan F, Howard A, Palmer S. Antibiotic-resistant infections in primary care symptomatic for longer and increased workload: outcomes for patients with E. coli UTls. Br. J. Gen. Pract.,2006; 56: 686-692.
5. Center for Disease Control (CDC). National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS); 2008. Human Isolates of Enteric Bacteria Final Report.
6. Guardabasse L. and Courvalin P. Modes of antimicrobial action and mechanisms of bacterial resistance. Aarestrup, F. M., Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria of animal originChap 1.ASM Press, Washington DC. 2006.
7.Spellberg MD. chief medical officer of the Los Angeles County+University of Southern California (LAC+USC) Medical Center and professor of medicine and associate dean for clinical affairs at the Keck School of Medicine of USC. 2011.
8.Young K D. Peptidoglycan. In Wiley Online Library. Retrieved from http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000702. html.2011.
9. World Health Organization (WHO). Tackling antibiotic resistance from a food safety perspective in Europe. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. Copenhagen, Denmark. 2011.
10. Denyer SP, Hodges NA, Gorman, SP and Gilmore BF. Hugo and Russell Pharmaceutical Microbiology (8th Edition). WileyBlackwell Publishing House, NewDelhi, India, 2011; 200-229.
11. Smith D, Dushoff J, Morris J. Agricultural antibiotics and human health. PloS Med. 2005; 2(8): 232.
12. Levin BR.The population genetics of antibiotic resistance. Clin. Infect.2007; 24: 9–16.
13. Amenu D. Antimicrobial resistance for enteric pathogens isolated from acute
gastro-enteritis patients, 2014.
14. Courvalin P. Antimicrobial drug resistance: prediction is very difficult, especially about the future. Emerg.Inf. Dis.2005; 11(10).
15. Hegstad K, Mikalsen T, Coque TM, Werner G, Sundsfjord A. Mobile genetic elements and their contribution to the emergence of antimicrobial resistant Enterococcusfaecalisand Enterococcus faecium. Clin.Microbiol.infec. 2010; 16(6): 541-554.
16. Rafaillidis PI, Pitsomunis AI and Falagas ME. Meta analyses on the optimization of the duration of antimicrobial treatment for various infections. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 2009; 23: 269-276.
17. Gordon MA and Banda HT. Non-typhoidalbacteraemia among HIVinfected Malawian adults: High mortality and frequent recrudescence. AIDS.2002; 16: 1633-1641.
18. Iwe P. Textbook of Pharmacology.AfrFirPubLtd, Onitsha, Nig, 2006; 480-49.
19. Silbergeld E, Graham J and Price L. Industrial food animal production, antimicrobial resistance, and human health.Ann. Rev Pub Health,2008; 29: 151–169.
20. Moran GJ, Amii RN, Abrahamian FM and Talan D A. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureusin community acquired skin infection. Emerg.Inf. Dis. 2005; 11: 928-930.
21. KieningerAN andLipsett PA. Hospital acquired pneumonia: pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. Surg. Clin. North. Am.,2009; 89: 439-461.
22. Clewell D. B. Antibiotic resistance plasmids in bacteria.In Wiley Online Library.Retrieved from http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0001491.html.2014
23. Joint Expert Technical Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance (JETACAR).The use of antibiotics in food-producing animals. Report of the Joint Expert Technical Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance (JETACAR).Canberra, Austr. 1999; Pp 20.
24. Fluit AC, Visser MR and Schmitz FJ. Molecular detection of antimicrobial
resistance. Clin.Microbiol.Rev.2001; 14: 836–871.
25. Sageman A. Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms, Problems, and Solutions" (2015).Honors Projects. Paper 416.http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/honorsprojects/416.
26. Holcomb HG, Durbin, KJ, Choi KJ, Darling ND and Angerio A D. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcusaureus as a threat to public health: A cellular approach.Journal of Health Sciences, GeorgiaUniversity, 2008.
27. Willey J, Sherwood L, Wolver ton C. Prescott Microbiology. 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Yk.,2013; 13: 377-400.
28. Galdiero S, Falanga A, Cantisani M, Tarallo R, Pepa M, D'Oriano V, Galdiero M.
Microbe host interactions: Structure and role of gram negative bacterial poris In US National Library of Medicine,2012. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3706956/.
29. Dessen A, Guilmi AM, Dideberg O. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in gram-positive pathogens. Curr.DrugTargetsInfect. Dis.2001;1: 63–77.
30. Harbottle H, Thakur S, Zhao S, White D. Genetics of antimicrobial resistance.
AnimBiotechnol., 2006; 17: 111-124.
31. Levy S. The Antibiotic Paradox: How Misuse of Antibiotics Destroys their Curative
Powers,2002.
32. Siegel J, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L. Management of multidrug resistant organisms in healthcare settings.Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/MDRO/MDROGuideline2006.pdf.
33. Smith HW. The sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents of a further series of strains of Bacterium coli from cases of white scours: the relationship between sensitivity tests and response to treatment. Vet. Rec.2008;68: 274-276.
34. Sun Y. Issues and challenges in developing long acting veterinary 530 antibiotic formulations. Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev.,200.56: 1481-1496.
35. Kools S, Moltmann J, Knacker T. Estimating the use of 528 veterinary medicines in the European union. Regul.Toxicol.Pharm., 2008; 50: 59-65.
36. Anderson E. Drug resistance in Salmonella typhimurium and its implications. Brit. Med. J.,2000;3: 333-339.
37. Hinton M, Hampson D, Linton A. The effects of oxytetracycline on the intestinal Escherichia coli flora of newly weaned pigs. J. Hygi. (London).2004; 95: 77- 85.
38. Rosen GD. Pro-nutrient antibiotic replacement standards discussed. Feedstuff.2003; 75: 11.
39. AMR-Review. eview on antimicrobial resistance – terms of reference. [Online] Available at: http://amr-review.org/node/5 [Accessed 18 September 2015]
40. Cosgrove SE.“The relationship between antimicrobial resistance and patient outcomes: mortality, length of hospital stay, and health care costs”, Clin. Infect. Dis. 2006; 2: 82-90.
41. McNulty C A. “Does laboratory antibiotic susceptibility reporting influence primary care prescribing in urinary tract infection and other infections?”, J Antimicrob. Chemother.2011;66 (6): 1396-1404.
42. Marshall B M, Levy SB. Food animals and antimicrobials: Impacts on human health.Clin.Microbiol. Rev., 2011; 24 (4): 718–733.
43. Spellbery B. Antibiotic resistance and antibiotic development. L. I. D. 2008; 8(4): 211-212.
44. Phillips I, Casewell M, Cox T, Groot B, Friis C, Jones R et al. Does the ruse of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? A critical review of published data.J.Antimic Chemother.2004; 53: 28-52.
45. World Health Organization (WHO).WHO global principles for the containment of antimicrobial resistance in animals intended for food. Report of a WHO consultation, Geneva, Switzerland,2000.
46. Acar J, Rostel B. Antimicrobial resistance: an overview. Rev. sci. tech. Off. Int. Epiz.2001; 20 (3): 797-810.
47. World Health Organization (WHO). Drug resistant Salmonella. Available from: http://www.who.intmediacentre/factsheets/fs139/en/. Accessed: 24 Jun, 2009.
48. Anonymous. Direct fed microbial, enzyme and forage additive compendium. Miller Publishing Company. Alternatives to antibiotic use: probiotics for the gut. Anim. Biotechnol.2006; 13: 97-112.
49. Klesius P H, Shoemaker CA, Evans J J.Efficacies of single and combined Streptococcus iniae isolate vaccine administered by intraperitoneal and intramuscular routes in tilap.Aquacult. 2000;188: 237-246.
50. Livermore D. Can better prescribing turn the tide of resistance? NatRevMicrobiol.2004; 2: 73-78.
51. Streatfield S J, Howard JA. Plant based vaccines. Intl.J.Parasitol. 2003;33: 479-93.
52. Barrow P. The use of bacteriophages for treatment and prevention of bacterial disease in animals and animal models of human infection.J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2001; 76: 677- 682.
53. Moldave K, Rhodes L. Bacteriophage emerging as tool in animal health and food safety. Richmond, U.K.:Pharmaprojects. Anim.Pharm. 2003; 14-16 Jul 18.
54. Cleveland J, Montville T, Nes IF, Chikindas ML. Bacteriocins: safe, natural antimicrobials for food preservation. Intl.J. Food Microbiol.2001; 71: 1-20.
55. DACAE and MSH. Antimicrobials use, resistance and containment baseline survey syntheses of findings. A report published by Drug Administration and Control Authority of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
56. Addisalem H., Bayleyegn M. Tetracycline Residue Levels in Slaughtered Beef Cattle from Three Slaughterhouses in Central Ethiopia. Glob. Vet. 2012; 8 (6): 546- 554.
57. Addis Z, Kebede N, Worku Z, Gezahegn H, Yirsaw A,Kassa T. Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolated from lactating cows and in contact humans in dairy farms of Addis Ababa: a cross sectional study. BMC. Infect. Dis., 2011,
58. Nelson N, Joshi M, Kirika R. Antimicrobial Resistance: The Need for Action in the East, Central and Southern Africa Region, Arlington, 2009.
59. Morley P S, Apley M D, Besser T E, Burney DP, Fedorka-Cray PJ, Papich MG, Traub-Dargatz, JL, Weese JS. Antimicrobial drug use in veterinary medicine. J.vet. Intern. Med. 2005; 19(2):617-629.
60. Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH)/ Ethiopia and WHO. Assessment of pharmaceutical sectors in Ethiopia, 2003.
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2017-12-15
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Dugassa, J., & Shukuri, N. (2017). REVIEW ON ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE AND ITS MECHANISM OF DEVELOPMENT. Journal of Health, Medicine and Nursing, 1(3), 1–17. Retrieved from https://www.iprjb.org/journals/index.php/JHMN/article/view/560
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