Influence of the Requisition of Specialized Teachers on Students’ Learning Outcomes in Magarini, Kilifi County, Kenya

Purpose: Education is seen as a remedy for all evils in each community due to its importance. The drive of this investigation was to explore schools’ management practices on students’ learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Magarini, Kilifi County, Kenya Methodology: The study was guided by the School Management and the Education Production Functions theories. The investigation assumed a mixed method and simultaneous triangulation design with descriptive quantitative survey design. The target population was 15,444 consisting of 100 teachers, 20 head teachers, 14,523 students, 800 parents, and 1 sub-county director of education. The sample was 390 participants which included 40 teachers, 20 head teachers, 249 students, 80 parents, and 1 sub-county director of education. The sampling techniques were census for the for the principals, random sampling for teachers, students and parents. The sub county director of education was sampled purposively. Questionnaire was used for teachers and while interviews were conducted on principals and sub county director of education. Quantitative data was analyzed in descriptive statistics and presented in tables, percentages and frequencies. Qualitative data was analyzed in themes and verbatim citations. Findings: From the findings, it was generally agreed that the requisition of specialized teachers had influence on the students’ learning outcomes indicating that the presence of teachers was key to students’ learning outcomes. There was no significant establishment of staff gap, meaning that the students’ learning outcomes could not be possible. The issue of requisition of trained teachers from the TSC was not seen. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The School Management and the Education Production Functions theories were used. The first theory was about involving series of activities relevant to the highly organized and effectual application of resources within the organization in order to attain organizational objectives. The second theory explained that the amount of output depended on the number of inputs and effort in due consideration of constraints dependent upon underlying technical processes. In schools the production functions were articulated in a functional form. The theories contributed to the study in that, good management practices could result into good outcomes. And individuals played part in making good results. Putting in place inputs so that outputs could be achieved was necessary. The study established that there was need for specialized teachers’ requisition. These theories were validated in that there was need to employ good practices and put in place better inputs if good outcomes were expected.


INTRODUCTION
This investigation examined the influence of schools' management practices on students' learning outcomes in Magarini, Kilifi County, Kenya. Education is seen as a cure for all evils in each community due to its importance (Khan, 2017). Schools' management practices term is used to refer to the apparent capabilities, skills and expertise of institution managers, educators and staff (Argyropoulau, 2018). Most frequently, when unfolding the administration practices of a person or institution, it means to implement or achieve something specific, like leading an institution to enhancement or instructing more efficiently. This term may likewise, include the excellence of adaptation or the capability of an institution or a teacher to grow, advance or become better (Ghasemy, 2018).
Schools' management practices originated from cognitive and behavioral psychology. Nevertheless, of late, constructivism has had an influence on thinking about learner outcomes and this may be credited to the way it occurred when behaviorist models were dominant in psychology in America (Adiele, 2019). However, some persons argue that it originates from the system of engineering developed to train the US military and seen as an issue or condition in its entirety, ramification, internal connections, external connections and with full knowledge of its place in its context (Robbins, 2020). Throughout World War II, a substantial quantity of training material for soldiers was established using the ideologies of teaching, education and human conduct and exams for evaluating learners' ability were used to select applicants for the training arrangements.
In 1954, Skinner, in his work known as the Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching, postulated that operative teaching management must comprise of trivial steps, many questions, instant response, and a must permit self-spacing (Azzam, 2017). In 1962, Mager propagated the use of learning objectives in his writing, known as preparing objectives for programmed instruction, which defined how to come up with instructional objectives plus anticipated behavior, learning conditions, and evaluation that would lead to desired learning outcomes (Ghavifekr, 2016). Benjamin Bloom in 1956, led his committee to publish a powerful taxonomy with domains of learning, namely: cognitive, psychomotor and affective and these classifications still affect learning outcomes like expected behavioral change, improved performance and attitude change among other learning outcomes (Reeves, 2020). In 1962, Glaser presented standard-referenced procedures where, contrary to norm-referenced exams in which an individual's performance was compared to a group performance, a criterionreferenced test was used to examine a person's conduct in relation to an objective. It was utilized to evaluate the learner's entrance behavior level and the degree to which students had established a command of content by the use of a teaching programme (Woods, 2021). Robert Gagne in 1965, defined 3 domains of learning results namely: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. In addition, he came up with five learning results namely: oral information, intelligent skills, reasoning strategy, attitude, and motor skills. Moreover, he described actions of teaching known as "circumstances of learning," which are the basics of instructional management, to guarantee that students get prerequisite skills before trying superior ones (Farombi, 2016).
Michael Criven proposed the need for formative assessment in 1967, such as trying out teaching resources with students and thoroughly revising them before announcing them. In the 1970s, instructional management models for better learning outcomes were widely used in various sectors such as the military, academia, and manufacturing. Teachers and researchers began to consider how computers could be used in an educational setting in the 1980s, which led to the emergency of Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) which were initially used in classrooms for drill and skill exercise and there was increasing interest in how cognitive psychology might be applied in teaching management practices (Anderson, 2017). The 1990s were marked by the influence of constructivist theory on instructional management and it became important that learning experiences were trustworthy and produced actual world learning atmospheres that allowed learners to construct their own knowledge. This marked a departure from the traditional forms of teaching management practices. Performing enhancement was likewise seen as a significant element of the knowledge outcome that was to be regarded in the instructional management procedure. With the development of the internet as an online knowledge tool and technological advancement, more interacting actions that required more complex thinking were implemented in the classroom and it was during this time that rapid prototyping was first seen.
The international declaration on schooling for every person accord was signed in Jomtien (1990) which provided an expanded vision of education. The world education forum in Dakar, Senegal in April 2000 set principles for education like improving overall quality of education, eliminating gender disparities, progress and completion, adult literacy programmes, free and compulsory basic schooling of good quality, training and life skills for youth.
These may only be realized if the schools have the management practices for better students' learning outcomes like adequate and well-trained teachers, adequate resources, and stakeholder's participation in decision making, positive attitude, good political atmosphere, and good government policies among other school capacities that influence positively the realization of instructional management performances (Kitavi, 2015).
In ancient Greece, education was highly democratized in the 5 th century by the Sophists, Isocrates, and Plato. Formal education was conducted by hired tutors in public schools while information education was done by unpaid teachers. Traditionalists believe that intellectuals could destroy the culture of Athens, leaving it at a disadvantage during war, while modern views hold that physical education related to Athens' power would diminish over time. They believe that education should be a tool, with all capacities, to develop the whole man (Lyons, 2015). Hence, this shows how community influences the outcome of a school management system.
In America, it had been reported that the quality of school resources such as buildings, finance and qualified teachers were critically important in the quest to improve instructional management outcomes in educational institutions (Musandu, 2017). Good educational learning outcomes depend on crucial resource capacity, such as learning and teaching materials that are conducive (UNESCO, 2016). A well-trained and competent school administrator, for example, may devise good fields that model and control student behavior and talents.
Careful analysis of education in India has revealed that students' learning outcomes are greatly influenced by physical, social, political, administrative, economic, financial, educational, wastage, stagnation and population explosion (Anil, 2015). Most schools in India are in rural areas which cannot attract professional teachers and make inspection difficulty due to poor road network. Racial discrimination is also on the rampant together with the political problems impeding good learning outcomes according to Argyropoulou (2018) through poor and bias policy making and allocation of resources. Compulsory education, poverty and population explosion in schools are among the school management practices influencing learning outcomes in India leading to overcrowded classrooms.
Hence, in the Chinese education system, the ministry of education organizes courses that emphasize a solid association between the school management and educators with the management elasticity in managing the institution. Hence, principals are clear about the notion of teacher management that emphasizes the necessity of shared effort between teachers and principals. The idea of a brave leader in institutions is no longer appropriate as it is not possible to run the institution single-handedly (Adeogun, 2018). Applying to teacher managing, all the teachers have the chance to lead and subsidize their secondary school perfection in learning outcomes at many stages (Harris, 2014). According to Adeogun (2018) rapid population growth in large countries such as China and India lead to overcrowded classrooms in educational institutions, which is associated with poor communication between learners and instructors, resulting in low student learning outcomes.
In Turkey, despite the laws and regulations, both educational management and the process of appointing school managers are ever increasing objects and issues, forming a conceptual basis on the underlying qualifications of managers who are top people in educational institutions in determining how well the learning outcomes like improved scores, timely completion of the syllabus, innovative teaching and learning and motivated staff are realized (Adeogun, 2018). In Saudi Arabia, school leaders demonstrate high-tech leadership (Bacud, 2018). Technology management practices correlate with teachers' ICT and competence and are supported by many leadership theories (Adu, 2017). According to Adu (2017) only technology leaders have the power to make quick instructional decision-making, test alignment to instruction, cover the teaching syllabus early, innovate teaching and learning, improve communication and generally improve scores on national examinations. In Indonesia, it is all about leading teaching and learning and besides school principals being the overall leaders, they have no direct effect on instruction and learning and it is given to heads of departments who coordinate teaching and learning activities for improved learning outcomes (Sidhu, 2016).
In Nigeria, students' learning outcomes are influenced by economic factors, political influence by military and democratic leaders, social factors, cultural influences on education, teaching techniques, quality of teachers and environmental factors (Isa et al., 2015) which greatly influence learning outcomes. Nigerian secondary schools' recruitment of staff and their career progression into leadership positions are determined on merit and there are procedures for promotion of staff and the appointment of new staff. The appointment is based on qualification, experience and expertise. However, in spite of the established criteria, there are influences of favouritism, ethnicity, and socio-cultural practices that determine how appointments and promotions are made, leading to qualified individuals being denied promotions or appointments. Hence, poor syllabus coverage, negativity, substandard exams, unfilled professional documents, poor teaching methods and low scores are witnessed (Adejumobi, 2019).
In most African countries, it seems that management practices are also a factor that determines whether educational organizations such as schools, colleges or universities, succeed or fail. In the absence of skills, numerous heads are overcome by the difficult task of management in school (Oduro, 2019). This failure to have training in monetary management affects budget and monitoring of money and enactment of school projects as well as the audit process, causing a failure of accountability and transparency in monetary spending (Kahavizakiriza, 2014).
In Zimbabwe schools face many problems related to poor classroom teaching and students' learning outcomes achievement (Garudzo-Kusereka, 2016). These challenges break down to matters of instructional supervision, teaching behaviour and general low learner performance. Although Zimbabwe at one time had the best education system in Africa with the highest literacy rate (Chitmwango, 2017) the schooling organization in the country is reeling from the vestiges of the economic challenges, with the pass rate dropping drastically over the years.
In Rwanda, the Ministry of education endorsed the "Rwanda Vision 2020" stating its wish to end poverty by 2020 and be in the cluster of middle-income nations, but owing to its encircled situation and inadequate resources, it considers its citizens human capital, making investing in knowledge and a technology-driven economy a priority. However, despite countless pains, there is still a lack of skilled teaching staff (Niyivuga, 2021).
In Uganda, teaching focused on developing learners' competencies and students were taught a way to foster higher-order thinking skills before the wars and civil strife in the seventies (Kabunga, 2013). To re-establish the quality of education, the Ugandan government implemented reforms in education, including universal primary and secondary education, which increased access to secondary education. However, teacher effectiveness deteriorated due to the mismatch between the inputs and the increased enrollment (Ouma, 2017). There have been reports of increasing examination malpractices, levels of rote learning, coaching of students and examination-oriented teaching (MoE, 2016).
Kenya values education as the main means of maintainable monetary development, communal mobility, nationwide cohesion and social growth (Ministry of Education, 2016). However, like the rest of the world, many schools' management practices influence students' learning outcomes (Lyons, 2015. Evaluation of educational outcomes has shown weaknesses for decades (Society of Educational Research and Evaluation in Kenya, 2019). Recent Kenyan policy initiatives show direction on the provision of education and training. For instance, Session Paper Number One of 2005 regarding strategy outlines for schooling, training and research outlines the various strategies to improve access, quality, and equity, completion rates and underlines government commitment to achieving universal basic education by 2005, a strategy to realize the goals of education for all. It emphasizes quality education and the need for consistent review of the curriculum to ensure its relevance and integrate emerging problems. It states that the government strategizes to reorientate secondary schools that are in deprived circumstances, provide science equipment to selected schools and offer targeted teaching materials to disadvantaged community secondary schools while inspiring parents and societies to offer substructures and operative costs. The teacher training programme is to be restructured such that apprentices achieve elementary qualifications in their particular fields and either commence post-graduate learning in teaching or improve their bachelor of education courses (Republic of Kenya, 2005).
Kenya values education as the main means of maintainable monetary development, communal mobility, nationwide cohesion, and social growth (Ministry of Education, 2016). However, like the rest of the world, many schools' management practices influence students' learning outcomes and these practices are associated with learning and teaching, quality professional development, school leadership, community involvement and external/stakeholder support. Evaluation of educational outcomes has shown weaknesses for decades (Society of Educational Research and Evaluation in Kenya, 2019). Recent Kenyan policy initiatives point the way forward in terms of education and training provision.
The Kenya Secondary Schools Heads Association (KESSHA) reports a rise in indiscipline cases in schools, congestion on available resources and students enrolled unable to grasp secondary school concepts, hence it should be considered to pursue vocational training in technical colleges. The new curriculum, which was set by the ministry of education in 2017, emphasizes the value of evolving skills and knowledge and, likewise, using those capabilities in actual life situations. The competencies include communicating and collaborating, thinking critically and problem resolution, imagining and creativity, citizenship, learning to learn, selfefficacy and digital illiterateness (Nyagosia, 2010).
Reports from the Sub County Education Office in Magarini show that the students' learning outcomes of the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) have been poor over the years, with 80% of the schools experiencing student unrest, delayed syllabus coverage, parental negativity towards school programmes, complex processes on instructional decision making, poor assessment items and processes, conflicts among stakeholders, and poor teaching/learning methods that lack innovativeness and incorporation of emerging issues.

Statement of the Problem
Education helps young people develop into creative and emotionally balanced adults, as well as acquire skills, knowledge, values and attitudes required for accountable, vigorous and fruitful citizenship. At the heart of schools' management practices, students' learning outcomes are achieved through improved requisition of teachers, resource provision, school support and stakeholders' participation. Considered are also students' performances, innovative teaching and learning methods, early syllabus coverage, assessment alignment to instruction, completed teaching documents, stakeholders' positivity, stakeholders' consensus, and quick instructional decision making. How well these outcomes are achieved depends on the schools' management practices that support the students' learning outcomes (Hoy, 2014). Students' learning outcomes have not been identified in Magarini. They include the requisition of teachers.
Some parents and teachers in Magarini Sub County articulated a lot of worry over learners' dismal performance in secondary schools, with 80% of the schools associated with student unrest, especially during examination times. The report also has it that most learners cannot even read and write as per instruction given in the language required, which may have been attributed to the schools' management practices for students' learning outcomes. This dismal performance shows that most students leave schools undereducated and have difficulties in getting ahead in a life characterized by poor wellbeing, lack of voice, short lifetime, joblessness, manipulation and gender disparity. If this situation continues, there would be no meaningful educational outcomes in the study sub-country.

LITERATURE REVIEW
This section begins with the theoretical framework of the two theories use in the study. These are the theory of school management and education production function theory.

Theory of School Management
School management requires the application of the Fayoism theory of managing those analyses and synthesizes the responsibility of managing establishments, a theory created in the Nineteen Hundred by Henry Fayol  and this theory assists in supporting the theme of school managing. Fayol subsidized extensively on this theory and practice of organizational management and postulated that there was a need to have more respect for the workers in management. This theory was applied to the independent variable, which entails the management of schools. Good management brings about better outcomes. School management practices matter since they determine better student learning outcomes in secondary schools. It is believed that all school participants have a part to play in the management of the secondary schools in the spirit of interpersonal interactions among themselves. For example, division of labour, delegation of duties and unity of command, among others, are management elements applied in this theory. The theory was about a series of activities that bring about good outcomes, and that is what the study is all about. If all the activities in schools go the way they were geared to achieving desirable outcomes, then students can achieve better learner outcomes.

Education Production Functions Theory
Several investigators hint at the origins of concern about the determining factors of education results and the production function tactic in the Coleman Report of Nineteen Sixty-Six in the USA, which explored equal-chance matters during the nineteen sixties. An educational production function relates institution and learner inputs to a measure of institution output. Representation of the schooling production procedure in this form is of particular interest in the descriptive study of human capital formation as well as in normative investigations of the optimal allocation of resources in the educational sector. A modest production model is seen behind much of the analysis in the economics of education. The commonly used inputs are institutional resources, instructor excellence, and family characteristics, and the result is learner accomplishment. Nonetheless, this area stands out from many others because the results of analysis are incorporated relatively directly into the policy procedure.
In order to make efficient and effective use of scarce resources, the preferred educational outcomes desired must be determined and identified. Once these outcomes are identified, those variables of the elements of the educational process that are controllable by the schools and are alterable can then be allocated the necessary instructional time and the fiscal resources to optimize the factors that influence student outcomes. Input-output analysis is one research strategy that attempts to identify the input variables related to productive schooling and then analyze them against the specified outcomes (Castler, 2013).

Influence of Requisition of Specialized Teachers on Students' Learning Outcomes in Schools
Teachers are the best resources for changing school performance by utilizing the knowledge, skills and gifts of every educator to provide unlimited sources for positive outcomes. Teachers' effectiveness depends on their commitment and the ability of the head to back them and inspire a tradition that permits educator managing to be existent (Metin, 2016). The delivery opinion of instruction determines the excellence of instruction, which defines what happens after a teaching experience and Mutsoso (2020) suggested that teacher assignment be reduced by engaging other staff since teachers had other responsibilities. A shortage in teaching staff leads to low performance and could be solved by employment of expatriate staffs as seen in Zimbabwe where expert instructors have drifted to South Africa, Botswana and other Western nations. According to Kyalo (2019) inadequate teachers result in heavy yoking of the teachers, which has an enormous effect on the excellence of the services they offer, with the outcomes affected. Oyer (2017) advised that more teachers reduce their workload to allow teachers ample time to prepare practical lessons. According to Ayodo (2015) high teacher experience enhances performance. Babatope (2017) recognized that instructors with more instruction practice achieve better results in real-class instruction than those with less instruction practice. Skilled educators have a command of what they teach and its coverage, have proficient exam procedures and pay intense attention to revising and exam practices (Heward, 2013). Instructor practice varies among educators and has an influence on what happens in the classroom when a teacher interacts with the learners. However, Malloy (2014) is of the opinion stating that experience of the teachers and quality of effort and other factors count. The professional development of the teacher influences learner inspiration, instruction methodology, communicating skills and the arrangement of the content and has a very high influence on students' participation during lessons (Croxford, 2016). Teachers with lower qualifications do the opposite. Ngidi et al. (2013) established that support teachers and their ability to explain clearly impact student satisfaction, hence leading to improved performance. Hillsborough (2015) emphasizes that only instructors who are skilled, certified, capable and of decent ethical standing need to be hired to teach learners. They must be devoted instructors, serving as role models in terms of time keeping, discipline, answerability, honesty, and desirable management approaches. A knowledgeable teacher understands what to teach and how to teach it; he is constantly on the lookout for better, more effective methods and procedures and evaluates their impact (Ndung'u, 2015). Teacher subject matter mastery, commitment to instruction and sincerity to new notions, all can play a noteworthy part in influencing positively the students' learning outcomes.

METHODOLOGY
The study used theory of school management and education functions theory. The investigation employed mixed methodology. The study embraced the concurrent triangulation design. The study was guided by the two theories mentioned above. The target population was 15,444 participants which comprised of 20 principals, 100 teachers, 14,523 students, 800 parents' representatives and 1 Sub County Director of Education. The sample was 390 participants comprising of 20 principals, 40 teachers, 249 students, 80 parents' representatives and 1 SCDE. The principals were sampled using census sampling. The rest were randomly sampled except the SCDE who was sampled using purposive expert sampling. There were questionnaires for teachers and students and interview schedule for principals, parents' representatives and the SCDE. Quantitative data was analyzed in descriptive statistics and presented in tables, percentages and frequencies. Qualitative data was analyzed in themes and verbatim citations.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
The data was set according to the study objective. This research examined how requisition of teachers influenced students' learning outcomes in Magarini Sub County secondary schools. Two levels of analysis were employed namely: descriptive and thematic.

Descriptive Statistics
In this analysis, the researcher used tables, frequencies and percentages and analyzed the data according to the study objectives as it is shown below.

Source: The researcher, 2023
From the table, it was generally agreed that the requisition of specialized teachers had influence on the students' learning outcomes as 25 (71.4 %) of the teachers agreed and strongly agreed. Another insignificant 3 (8.6 %) did not decide. Those who disagreed and strongly disagreed totaled to 7 (20 %). This indicated that presence of teachers was key to students' learning outcomes. The establishment of staff gap was accepted only by 7 (20 %) and 5 (14.3 %) were undecided. Those who disagreed and strongly disagreed were 23 (65.7 %) being the majority indicating that schools lacked this indicator. Thus, the students' learning outcomes could not be possible.
The issue of requisition of trained teachers from the TSC was only accepted by 7 (20.0 %) with 1 (2.9 %) being undecided. The majority of 27 (77.1 %) disagreed and strongly disagreed. This indicated that the learning outcomes of students could not be achieved. Similarly, the BoM did not seem to have done a good job in employing trained teachers to fill the gap. Only 7 (20.0 %) could agree and strongly agree with 2 (5.7 %) were undecided. The majority of 26 (74.3 %) disagreed and strongly disagreed that there was any meaningful BoM intervention on this matter. Without teachers, there could be no good students' learning outcomes.
Finally, on the objective of requisition of specialized teachers, it was the issue of teacher/student ratio which could improve teaching/learning methods and process. This indicator was agreed and strongly agreed upon by only 9 (25.7 %) with only 5 (14.3 %) not decided. The majority of 21 (60.0 %) disagreed and strongly disagreed. Without good and manageable class sizes, it was not possible to produce good results among the students.
The picture painted in these responses on the influence of requisition of specialized teachers was undesirable. There was no meaningful establishment of staff gap in schools. The requisition of teachers and specialized teachers was not attractive. Poor teacher/student ratio was witnessed in the responses which hampered students' learning outcomes. These findings concurred with the findings of Calvo (2017) who had it that the provision of specialized teachers improved the students' performance in schools.

Thematic Analysis
The researcher prepared and organized data collected from the field interviewing. There were 20 principals and 1 Sub County Director of Education. From interviews, it was agreeable that specialized teachers' requisition was paramount as most principals agreed and as one of them had this to say, "There is great need to establish the staff gap and fill it as soon as possible. The option to fill gaps in schools rested with the BoMs. There must have been source of funding organized by various boards of management to address teacher shortage as one principal observed, "The only other way to get enough teachers is through the BoMs. However, funding schools has not been easy even with the free day secondary education. There are no funds to employ teachers. Even the funding from the government always come late" (P3) It was elaborated that communities were not able to employ teachers through the BoMs due to lack of resources as one principal said, "The organization to raise funds in communities has been very difficult. Several times we have been involved in fund raising without much success. This leaves us with dire need for teachers. It is therefore, the responsibility of the principals to utilize the number of teachers they have meaning that workloads must be huge" (P4).
The education officer had similar concerns over the teachers' supply in the sub county. There was agreement that a staff gap existed among all schools in the study area as it was observed, "We have acute shortage of teachers in this sub county. The gap is too wide such that our teachers are overloaded. There is acute understaffing here" (SCDE).
There was no way the TSC could afford to supply adequate teachers to all the schools in the area of Magarini. The teachers' employer complained of funding from the government as the officer continued to say, "We have been making our returns to the TSC with requisition of teachers with their subject combinations but this has never brought any fruits so far and we all know the reason, funds" (SCDE).
According to the officer, the BoMs were not in a position to fill the staff gap. They did not have funds for this. The situation had resulted to overcrowded classes as it was observed, "Similarly, BoMs may not help us in this situation due to the same reason of funding. The number of students in a class is always too large for any teacher to manage. There has been a 100 percent transition from primary to secondary which has catapulted this problem" (SCDE).

Conclusions
It was concluded that the requisition of specialized teachers influenced students' learning outcomes and the presence of teachers was crucial to students' learning outcomes. The establishment of staff gap could have been improved and the requisition of trained teachers from the TSC and BoM could have been improved. The teacher/student ratio to improve teaching/learning methods and process needed improvement by having controllable class sizes. The requisition of specialized teachers was paramount if students' learning outcomes were to be real and acceptable.

Recommendation
The Teachers Service Commission should recruit adequate teachers in the public secondary schools so as to ensure adequate staffing which influence improved students' performance. The principals should mobilize human and material resources and creates the necessary climate of students' outcomes